Effects of emotional labor and sleep quality on depression in older apartment security workers in Korea: a cross-sectional study

Article information

J Korean Biol Nurs Sci. 2025;27(3):400-411

Publication date (electronic) : 2025 August 26

doi : https://doi.org/10.7586/jkbns.25.040

Seungmi Park¹, Sujin Kang², Hye Ok Park³, Youngji Kim^,4

¹College of Nursing & Research Institute of Nursing Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Korea

²College of Nursing, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea

³Kumudini Nursing College, Mirzapur, Tangail, Bangladesh

⁴Department of Nursing, College of Nursing and Health, Kongju National University, Gongju, Korea

Corresponding author: Youngji Kim Department of Nursing, College of Nursing and Health, Kongju National University, 56 Gongjudaehak-ro, Gongju 32588, Korea Tel: +82-41-850-0300 Fax: +82-41-850-0315 E-mail: yjkim19@kongju.ac.kr

Received 2025 June 26; Revised 2025 August 6; Accepted 2025 August 6.

Abstract

INTRODUCTION

Globally, all regions and places experience population ageing. Of all, Korea’s population is aging very rapidly. The working-age population and the elderly dependent population are decreasing, threatening the lives of the elderly [1]. As a result, people in their 60s are excluded from complete retirement and are opting to maintain their careers through measures like extending their retirement age or choosing reemployment after retirement [2]. In this situation, security worker is one of the most preferred occupations for seniors facing difficulties in employment and job search due to their age [3]. Currently, 21.3% of elderly workers aged 65 and above are working as security workers in Korea [4].

Apartment security workers are classified as "Elementary Workers" under the "Cleaning and Guard Related Elementary Occupations" category of the Korean Standard Classification of Occupations, which includes facility security [4]. Their primary responsibilities include monitoring activity both inside and outside the apartment building, regulating guest access, overseeing parking, accepting and documenting mail deliveries, maintaining cleanliness, sorting recyclables, and dealing with tenants’ concerns [4]. Elderly apartment security workers work in bad working circumstances, engaged in 24-hour and night shifts, and sleeping in small security guard posts [4,5]. Many demographic and health factors, including age, current smoking status, alcohol consumption [6], and perceived health status [7], have been linked to depression in security workers. Other work-related factors include job insecurity, low pay, threats and harassment from superiors, experience of violence [6], irregular work schedules [8], short rest time [9], and emotional labor [10]. Notably, the sleep quality of shift workers, including apartment security workers, has been reported to be closely associated with depression [11].

Emotional labor is the process by which employees regulate or manage their feelings and expressions to achieve organizational goals [12]. When dealing with complaints and interacting with tenants, apartment security workers engage in emotional labor [13,14]. The majority of them are indirectly employed through subcontractors or service businesses, and because they are required to renew contracts annually, they are forced to endure unjust treatment by residents in order to minimize conflicts. Such emotional labor impacts them in various ways and leads to increased job stress and decreased job satisfaction, and it can result in cardio-cerebrovascular diseases, as well as various mental health issues including anxiety, agitation, anger disorders, social phobia, panic disorders, depression, and suicide [15]. Apartment security workers who repeatedly work shifts and night shifts experience low sleep quality. Apartment security workers had lower sleep quality compared to other shift workers in different occupations (nurses, male manufacturing workers) or elderly residents in the community [13]. Above all, shift work is related with impacts on sleep, depressed mood, and even suicidal ideation [16].

Therefore, in this study, the low sleep quality and emotional labor of apartment security workers, who repeatedly work shifts, were considered important factors that could directly affect depression and were included as key independent variables.

Concerns about the work environment and mental health of apartment security workers have grown in society as a result of reports of verbal and physical abuse, as well as some incidents of burnout [17]. According to studies, approximately 21~30% of apartment security workers have experienced depression with an average of around four depressive symptoms reported [6]. In comparison, the prevalence of depressive symptoms among community-dwelling old people was approximately 11.3% according to 2023 data from the Ministry of Health and Welfare, and it was reported to be about 13.5% in 2020 [18]. The markedly higher rate among elderly apartment security workers suggests a significantly elevated risk in this demographic. Depression can occur across all age groups, but it is particularly common in old age, being one of the most prevalent mental disorders among the elderly [19]. In addition to negatively affecting an employee's physical and mental well-being, depression also was associated with lower productivity (i.e., absenteeism and presenteeism) [20].

Although awareness of emotional labor, sleep quality and depression have increased among health professionals, the relationship between emotional labor, sleep quality, and depression has not been thoroughly studied in our participants. A lack of research in this area highlights an insufficient understanding of mental health concerns among apartment security workers.

The aim of current study was to determine the level of emotional labor, sleep quality, and depression and to identify the risk factors on depression among elderly apartment security workers.

METHODS

RESULTS

1. Levels of emotional labor, sleep quality, and depression

209 men participants were included in this analysis. Descriptive statistics for study variables are presented in Table 1. The average total score for emotional labor was 24.90 (± 4.75), and the average total score for sleep quality was 9.63 (± 2.16), with 206 participants (98.6%) classified as poor sleepers. The average total score for depression was 3.88 (± 3.31), and 70 participants (33.5%) scored 5 or higher, indicating depression.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics of Emotional Labor, Sleep Quality, and Depression (N = 209)

2. Participant characteristics

The background data (demographic and health characteristics) of the participants are presented in Table 2. The mean age of these participants was 69.28 (± 3.66) years, with 189 participants (90.4%) being aged 65~69 years. A total of 126 participants (60.3%) were educated to the high school or higher. 174 participants (83.3%) were married, and 179 participants (85.6%) lived with family. A total of 116 participants (55.5%) had a religion. 183 participants (87.6%) were classified as poor by perceived economic status, and the average monthly income was 2,144,300 KRW (± 346,100), with 182 participants (87.1%) earning 1,975,000 KRW or more.

Table 2.

Depression by Demographic and Health Characteristics (N = 209)

4. Differences in depression based on work-related characteristics of the participants

The following are the data regarding the work-related characteristics of the participants. 171 participants (81.8%) worked in provincial areas, 142 participants (67.9%) worked in apartments with more than five buildings, and 179 participants (85.6%) were affiliated with a contract management. The average of total duration of service as apartment security workers was 6.38 (± 4.55) years, with 113 participants (54.1%) having worked for more than 5 years. The average of weekly working hours were 72.61 (± 18.38) hours, with 113 participants (54.1%) working 72 hours or more per week. Most participants, 203 individuals (97.1%), worked 24-hour alternating shifts. One hundred thirty-eight participants (66.0%) did not have a separate break room. When it comes to rest time guaranteed, 99 participants (47.4%) could not leave their post during rest times and had to handle urgent matters if they arose. One hundred eighty participants (86.1%) had no previous experience of unfair dismissal, but 145 participants (69.4%) had anxiety about unfair dismissal. One hundred fourteen participants (54.5%) had experienced verbal or physical violence, and 146 participants (69.9%) performed physically demanding tasks (Table 3).

Table 3.

Depression According to Work-related Characteristics (N = 209)

The participants' depression levels showed statistically significant differences based on several work-related characteristics: working area (t = 2.34, p = .020), number of apartment buildings (t = −2.53, p = .012), management entity (t = −4.12, p < .001), previous experience of unfair dismissal (t = −2.49, p = .014), anxiety about unfair dismissal (t = −4.89, p = .001), experience of verbal/physical violence (t = −3.32, p = .001), and physically demanding tasks (t = −3.02, p = .003) (Table 3).

5. Correlations among emotional labor, sleep quality, and depression

The participants' depression showed a statistically significant positive correlation with both emotional labor (r = .27, p < .001) and sleep quality (r = .33, p < .001). Emotional labor also showed a significant positive correlation with sleep quality (r = .21, p = .002) (Table 4).

Table 4.

Correlations of Depression, Emotional Labor, and Sleep Quality (N = 209)

6. Factors related to depression

Prior to conducting the stepwise multiple regression analysis, the assumptions of multiple linear regression were tested. The skewness and kurtosis values for the main variables were all within an absolute value of 2, indicating that the normality assumption was satisfied. The residual scatterplot showed no distinct pattern, confirming that the assumption of homoscedasticity was met. The Durbin–Watson statistic was 1.895, which is close to 2, indicating that there was no autocorrelation and that the residuals were independent. Tolerance values ranged from .93 to .98, and variance inflation factor values ranged from 1.02 to 1.08, which are well below the threshold of 10, indicating that multicollinearity was not an issue. The condition index ranged from 1.00 to 14.52, which is below the commonly accepted threshold of 15, further supporting the absence of multicollinearity.

The factors contributing to depression is shown in Table 5. The regression model for depression was significant (F = 18.26, p < .001). Living alone, poorer sleep, higher emotional labor, and unfair dismissal accounted for 25% of the total variance in depression. Living alone (β = .30, p < .001), having poorer sleep (β = 0.29, p < .001), having higher emotional labor (β = .16, p = .012), and having experienced an unfair dismissal in the past (β = .14, p = .023) were all found to be significantly associated with depression.

Table 5.

Factors Affecting Depression in Participants (N = 209)

DISCUSSION

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of emotional labor and sleep quality on depression among elderly apartment security workers in Korea. The results confirmed that living alone, poorer sleep quality, higher levels of emotional labor, and previous experience of unfair dismissal were all significantly associated with an increased risk of depression in this group. Notably, 33.5% of elderly apartment security workers experienced depression (cutoff point ≥ 5), which is somewhat higher than the reported range of 21~30% in previous studies [6] and markedly higher than the 11.3% prevalence among community-dwelling older adults in Korea [18]. This study also shows that elderly apartment security workers face multiple factors that may contribute to depression, including advanced age, chronic health conditions, and work-related risks such as 24-hour rotational shifts, unstable employment, and long working hours that exceed the legal limit of 52 hours per week (average weekly working hours of 72.61) [16]. These findings highlight that living alone, poor sleep quality, emotional labor, and experiences of unfair dismissal play important roles in increasing depression risk, underscoring the need for comprehensive interventions that address these factors together. Therefore, targeted measures to manage emotional labor, improve sleep quality, support employment stability, and reduce social isolation are essential to alleviate depression in this vulnerable group.

First, living alone is the factor that had the greatest impact on depression among elderly apartment security workers. According to the 2023 Elderly Survey, 11.3% of the overall elderly population experienced depression, with symptoms worsening with age [18]. Furthermore, the depression rate among elderly individuals without a spouse was 8.3% higher than those with a spouse [18]. A study by Srivastava et al. [29] also found that elderly individuals living alone had a 16% higher likelihood of experiencing depression compared to those living with family. Specifically, elderly individuals who experienced bereavement and lived alone had a 56% higher likelihood of experiencing depression.

Elderly individuals living alone are more likely to experience depression due to loneliness and lack of social support. Those who have experienced bereavement and live alone suffer from depression even more as they face stress from spousal loss and deficiency in emotional support [29]. When elderly individuals living alone experience higher levels of depression, it can lead to higher rates of illness due to irregular meals and inadequate nutritional intake, resulting in deteriorating health [30]. Despite these serious circumstances, there is a lack of understanding and awareness among the elderly and local communities regarding mental illnesses in the elderly, including depression, leading to inadequate diagnosis and treatment [31]. Therefore, multifaceted efforts are needed to raise awareness of depression and strengthen social support for this group. For example, a recent systematic review and meta-analysis demonstrated that community-based support group interventions significantly reduced depression levels among elderly individuals living alone by enhancing their social connections and perceived emotional support [32]. To this end, it is necessary not only to link with community mental health resources but also to conduct regular depression screenings and early interventions, and to operate community-based support group programs for elderly individuals living alone to help reduce their emotional isolation.

Secondly, poor sleep quality is the second most influential factor affecting depression among elderly apartment security workers. It was found that 98.6% of elderly apartment security workers were classified as poor sleepers, indicating that the majority of participants have poor sleep quality. This proportion is higher than the poor sleep quality rate (93.4%) of apartment security workers reported by Kim et al. [13]. According to Han’s study [33], among workers aged 60 and above, those who were classified as ‘Elementary workers’ (including apartment security workers) showed the highest prevalence of sleep disorders at 4.2%, with 36.6% experiencing depression accompanied by sleep disorders. Sleep and depression are closely related, as changes in the quality and quantity of sleep can lead to changes in neural circuits and neurotransmitters associated with depression, either exacerbating or alleviating depression [34]. The quality of sleep is known to be an essential factor in assessing the risk of depression among shift and night workers [35,36]. In other words, poor sleep quality is considered one of the main causes of mental health issues, including depression, among shift and night workers [16]. Fatigue resulting from long working hours is believed to be the primary cause of poor sleep quality of apartment security workers [13].

However, the risk of depression due to long working hours can be reduced, even for shift workers, if they are guaranteed sufficient time for a rest [9,37]. Therefore, to improve the sleep quality of apartment security workers who work long hours in cramped security guard post while balancing rest and sleep, it is essential to secure guaranteed rest time and provide separate break rooms for rest and sleep [4,13]. To be more specific, it is necessary to take naps of less than 30 minutes during rest times to reduce fatigue and make themselves feel better, ensure at least 7 hours of sleep time for fatigue recovery on days off, refrain from caffeine intake and alcohol consumption, and encourage adequate nutrient intake to improve sleep quality [13]. It is particularly important to ensure that residents do not disrupt the designated rest and sleep times of apartment security workers by attaching visible notices to warn the residents. The management office should also adjust nighttime duties to guarantee their time to rest and sleep effectively [4]. It is also necessary to create an atmosphere that enables the provision of separate break rooms through cooperation between local governments, management offices, and residents [5].

Thirdly, emotional labor is the third most influential factor affecting depression among elderly apartment security workers. Apartment security workers are inevitably involved in emotional labor, catering to various demands of residents while suppressing and restraining their own emotions. Specifically, unpleasant comments and conduct from tenants can increase job stress and cause emotional fatigue in apartment security workers [4]. Such job stress ultimately has a negative impact on the level of depression among apartment security workers. In other words, chronic stress due to emotional labor increases the levels of inflammatory cytokines, continuously stimulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, leading to anxiety and depression [38,39]. Therefore, it is crucial to adhere to the "Anti-bullying law for security workers" and clearly define the permissible scope of duties for apartment security workers to reduce the negative impact of emotional labor when they interact with the residents. Furthermore, residents who are prone to complaints or disagreements should have standardized response manuals established for them, and professional counseling help should be made available in the event of emotional labor situations [4,13]. Above all, there needs to be an improvement in residents' awareness and attitude toward the value and importance of the duties of apartment security workers [13]. In addition, nursing intervention programs for mental health that include training on self-expression techniques, work-life balance, self-encouragement, emotion regulation, anger regulation training, communication, stress-relieving skills, etc. should be prepared for apartment security workers [4].

Lastly, experience of unfair dismissal is the fourth most influential factor affecting depression among elderly apartment security workers. In this study, 13.9% of elderly apartment security workers were found to have experienced unfair dismissal, which is a higher figure than the national survey results of apartment security workers in 2019 (11.1%) [5]. Unfair dismissal refers to termination during the employment contract period and termination without justifiable reasons upon expiration of the employment contract [5]. Employees who have experienced dismissal may suffer from physical symptoms such as headaches, backache, skin problems, muscular pain and eye strain. [40].

Most apartment security workers are indirect temporary workers who sign contracts with outsourcing management companies through service contracts, and they often experience job insecurity at each renewal of the service contract due to the prevalence of short-term contracts [5]. The Act on Prohibition of Age Discrimination in Employment and Elderly Employment Promotion (Article 4-4) prohibits discrimination against workers based on age in retirement and dismissal without rational reasons [41]. However, demands for retirement or unfair dismissal based on age are frequent among apartment security workers aged 60 and above. The problem is that in most cases, there is a lack of awareness about these acts of age discrimination [41]. To address these issues, it is necessary to extend the retirement age of apartment security workers (setting the recommended retirement age to 70) and to secure stability in employment for older workers by employing them in temporary contract positions based on their health conditions even after retirement [5]. Additionally, local governments should make efforts to improve the employment environment of apartment security workers by enacting ordinances to improve their treatment, selecting exemplary sites for employment stability annually, providing incentives such as support for libraries, and conducting diverse efforts such as education on labor rights and monitoring targeting representatives of residents and management office personnel [5].

Therefore, it is necessary to implement regular educational programs aimed at improving awareness of depression among elderly apartment security workers, thereby enhancing their accurate understanding and knowledge of depression. In other words, it is important to collaborate with local mental health centers and educate security workers through specialized psychiatric nurses to raise awareness of depression and suicide risk, screen and diagnose depression early, and provide education on seeking counseling and treatment from professionals if necessary. Nursing interventions emphasizing social connections are particularly necessary for elderly apartment security workers who are living alone, and these interventions can be implemented by encouraging frequent communication with family, friends, and close acquaintances, participating in support groups, and promoting individual efforts such as regular exercise, volunteering, hobbies, maintaining a balanced diet, and healthy eating habits [42].

While this study attempted to avoid bias by collecting data from 10 regions across the country using convenience sampling, the conclusions are limited in their applicability to the total population of apartment security workers. Since this study focused only on emotional labor, sleep quality, and depression, further research is necessary to explore various physical and mental health factors as well as labor environment factors that may influence depression among elderly apartment security workers. Nevertheless, this study suggests policy implications such as ensuring rest time and separate break room, stabilizing employment for older workers, and providing education on labor rights to alleviate depression among apartment security workers. Additionally, the significance of this study lies in highlighting the need for developing and implementing nursing intervention programs for promoting mental health aimed at mitigating emotional labor, improving awareness of depression, and early diagnosis and treatment.

In conclusion, these findings highlight the urgent need for multi-level interventions to reduce depression among elderly apartment security workers by addressing living conditions, work-related stressors, and mental health support. Future research should continue to expand on these factors and develop evidence-based nursing interventions and policy measures.

CONCLUSION

In summary, depression and inadequate sleep are highly prevalent in elderly security workers. The findings suggest that social isolation, inadequate sleep, increased emotional labor and unstable employment may increase the risk of depression. Therefore, routine screening for the predictors of those workers may also be beneficial. Also, comprehensive nursing interventions should be developed to reduce depression among elderly apartment security workers, with a particular focus on raising awareness of depression, maintaining social support networks, improving sleep quality through effective use of rest times, and relieving emotional labor through stress management strategies.

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